Asimov on Chemistry

asimovon chemistry

 The Book Asimov on Chemistry by Isaac Asimov is a collection ofThat seventeen essays he wrote for The Magazine of Fantasy and ScienceFiction. This book is one of at That Were published by Doubleday & Company ,Inc. . Not all of the books centered on chemistry and like science . Most justcovered anything Isaac Asimov wondered about . These Essays date back quiteaways with a range from January 1959 to April 1966.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRYThe Weighting Game
  I found this to be the most boring in the whole book . it coverschemical and physical atomic weight atomic weight . It gives usefull chemicalThat methods determining the atomic weight .Slow burn
 This is a description of how Isaac Newton contributed to the field ofchemistry alongwith what civilizations thought of chemistry. Then he talksabout a pathologically shy , absentminded , stuffy , women- hating chemist . Thisman did make some discoveries about inflammable gas and water Proved to be anoxide.The Element of Perfection
 Asimov talks about astronomers in the mid 1800's , and how they madethe spectroscope . Only then does he start to mention a component of a frenchchemist belived to be new or maybe just a heavier or from nitrogen . inertgases and there liquefaction points are then listed along whenthey when fisrtliquefied by a chemist .Welcome, Stranger !
 This talks about the rarest or stable enert gases , xenon . It tells usefullwhy so many expirements tat in 1962 were done Involving this gas. fisrt itdefines the word gas , and talks about different types in about four pages .Thens he talks about how it is combined with fluorine to form a poison .Death in the Labratory
 Here Asimov talks about how scientists have died due to poor labconditions and other matters . He tells you a few usefull way to poison youselfin a lab zoals mixing xenon and fluorine . He then goes off and Explains howfluorine was used and discovered alongwith who died in this process . A fewother poisonous chemical compounds are usefull Mentioned .To Tell a Chemist
 This is Isaac Asimov's way of telling if someone is chemist or not . Thetwo questions are : ( 1 ) How do you pronounce unionized ? and ( 2 ) what is amole ? He feels That if you can say un - EYE - on- ized and talk for hours aboutmolecular weight to define mole , then you must be a chemist .NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
The Evens Have It
 Concluded here is how isotopes are impractical and how to identifythem . He then descibes how an isotope is constructed . usefull he says anelement with an atomic number is equally without stable or semi -stable elements ,execpt nine elements . Thus the Earth is of the odd / even form havingisotopes wtih an even number of neutrons .ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
You, Too, Can Speak Gaelic
 Here you are given basic instrucions on how to pronouce seventeensylable words . His example is para - dimethylaminobenzaldehyde ( PA - ruh - dy - METH -il -a - MEE - noh - I - WILL - duh -hide ) . He then tells the origin and evolution of thedifferent words for methyl and ethyl alcohol alongwith there atomicstructure.BIOCHEMISTRY
Haste The makers
 Asimov talks about the origins and catalysts . He tells how a catalystworks and what causes it to . Also , he Proves That A catalyst is in no waymagical after having a lecture about this from his editor . In the end catalystare made of enzymes That cause life .Life 's Bottleneck
 This deals with how man is dumping phosphorus into the ocean due toplumbing . this is mixing up the ocean and the sea floor causing phosphorus tostay at the bottom of ocean instead of circulating . Also , sewage dumping is amajor pollutant for the ocean .The Egg and Wee
 Asimov talks about and contemplates how all life can be placed in a eggWhich is so small . He ends by talking about the volume and number of atomscertain viruses containerization alongwith who died studying them .That's Life
 Explanations of life are given here . Asimov talks about people theoriesand definitions of life fits over years . People tried to say what was living andwhat was dead by definitions That Were there own counterexample . A lenghtydefinition was presented at the end with no loopholes That were detectable .Not as We Know It
 Covered here are different posibile backgrounds for sustaining life .Water is the background we live off . The closest he Compared ammonia is dueto similarities in water they share . Asimov, a detailed science fiction author ,usefull metions Such alterantives as vaporous , metal , energy , and mental beings.These would live in space , energy , stars , hyperspace .geochemistryRecipe for a Planet
 This was written when the united states and the former Soviet Unionwere attempting to drill into the center of the Earth . This project , Mohole, has long since abandoned leg . Ideas are presented about possible center orthe Earth zoals iron or olivine (a magnesium iron silicate ) . The percentagesby wieght are given for the different substance that'll make up the Earth inthesis people's theories . At the end is a recipe to construct a planet shaftsomewhat of a joke .No More Ice Ages ?
 This deals with the factthat by having buring coal and oil power plants ,We are giving off too much carbon dioxide . That May cause another ice age or aWorld Wide tropic . Usefull it deals with how nuclear waste from power plants isor being dispoed .GENERALThe Noblemen of Science
 Isaac Asimov Decided to write this essay after he was called by aReporting wanting to know who had just three Frenchmen were That won thenobel prize . Since he did not know he Decided to make a list of all who pepoplehad won the Nobel Preize in the fields of physics , chemistry , and medicine . heyusefull oversupplied the country in All which each scientist recieved his or herundergradute training.The Isaac Winners
 There are People that Isaac Asimov feel are the best in the field orscience , so he made ​​The Isaac Winners. This award is named after Isaac Newton( besides who else could it be) . Asimov has made ​​a list of seventy - two peoplehe feels are the contedors . Then , after listing and giving a brief descriptionof the canidates , he gives you a list of how many people think in whatlanguage . Most thought in English , while the least thought in Russian . thenhe list his top ten in alphabetical order giving there religion and nationality ..

Marie Curie

LIFE OF MARIE CURIE

 Marie Curie (1867-1934) was a French physicist with many accomplishments in both physics and chemistry . Marie and her husband Pierre , who was a French physicist usefull , are both famous for Their Work in radioactivity .

 Marie Curie, originally named Marja Sklodowska was born in Warsaw , Poland on Nov.7 , 1867. Her first learning of physics came from her father who taught it in high school . Marie's father must have taught his daughter well Because in 1891 , she went to Paris ( where she changed her original name ) and enrolled at the Sorbonne . Then two years later, she passed the Examination for her physics degree ranking in first place . She Pierre Curie in 1894 , and married him in the next year . Marie subsequently gave birth to two daughters Irene ( 1897 ) and Eve ( 1904 ) .

 Pierre Curie (1859-1906) obtained his doctorate in the year of his marriage , but had already distinguished himself in the study of the properties of crystals . He discovered the phenomenon of piezoelectricity , whereby changes in the volume of certain crystals excite small electric potentials . He discovered That the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature , and thatthere exists a critical temperature above All which the magnetic properties disappear , this is called the Curie temperature.

 Marie Curie was interested in the recent discoveries of radiation , All which were made ​​by Wilhelm Roentgen on the discovery of X -rays in 1895 , and by Henri Becquerel in 1896 , when he discovered uranium gives off similar invisible radiation as the X -rays . Gested Curie began studying uranium radiation and made ​​it her doctoral thesis . With the aid of an electrometer built by Pierre , Marie measured the strength of the Radiation Emitted form uranium compounds and found it proportional to the uranium content , constant over a long period of time and Influenced by external conditions. She detected a similar immutable radiation in the compounds of thorium . While checking thesis results , she made ​​the discovery That uranium pitchblende and the mineral chalcocite lite Emitted four times as much radiation as Their uranium content . She Realized That unknown elements , even more radioactive uranium must then be present . Then in 1898 she drew the revolutionary conclusion That pitchblende contains a small amount of an unknown radiating element .

 Pierre Curie Understood The importance of this supposition and joined his wife's work . In the next year , the Curies discovered two new radiating elements whichthey ​​named Polonium (after Marie's native country ) and Radium . They now began the tedious and monumental task of isolating elements thesis So THAT Their chemical properties could be determined. During the next four years , working in a leaky wooden shed , they processed a ton of pitchblende , laboriously isolating from it a fraction of a gram of radium .

 In 1903 , Marie Curie obtained her doctorate for a thesis on radioactive substances , and with her husband and Henri Becquerel she won the Nobel Prize for physics for the joint discovery of radioactivity . Finally , the Curies financial aspect was relieved , and the following year Pierre was made ​​the professor at the Sorbonne , and the assistant Marie . Everything was going well for the Curies , but then Pierre was run over by a horse drawn cart and killed . Marie was deeply affectedness by his death and overcame this blow only by putting all her energy into her scientific work thatthey had bene together .

 Marie took over her husband's post at the Sorbonne , osmanthus making her the first female lecturer at the Sorbonne , and in 1908 she was appointed the professor. In 1911 she received an unprecedented second Nobel Prize , this time in chemistry for her work on radium and it's compound .

 During World War I , Madame Curie dedicated herself entirely to the development of the use of X -rays in medicine. In 1918 she Became head of the Paris Institute of Radium , were her daughter Irene Joliot - Curie worked with her husband Fredric Joliet . Her research for the rest of her life was dedicated to the chemistry of radioactive materials and their medical applications . She labored to establishement international scholarships and lectured abroad . Marie Curie died on July 4 , 1934 of Leukemia , All which was Undoubtedly Caused by prolonged exposure to radiation . A year later, Irene and Fredric won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the synthesis of new radioactive elements .
ELEMENTS MARIE Discovered
Polonium is a rare metallic element , uranium ore All which naturally Occurs in pitchblende . But most comm only been made ​​artificially by bombarding bismuth (a brittle metal ) with neutrons . It is used chiefly by scientists for nuclear research.
Radium is a highly radioactive metallic element . It Occurs mostly in thorium ores and uranium . It was discovered by the Curies while processing pitchblende . Until mid - 1950's radium was used only for treating cancer and an ingredient in fluorescent paint used for watch and instrument dials . Today safer and cheaper sources of radiation have Replaced radium for most industrial and medical uses.

CONCLUSION

 The work of the Curies , All which by its nature 's dealing with changes in the atomic nucleus , led the way toward modern understanding of the atom as an entity That can be split to release enormous amounts of energy . With these discoveries , we 've been able to have actually put to use the elements in our everyday life .

ozone layer

In environmental science the greenhouse effect is a common term for the role of water vapor , carbon dioxide and ozone play in keeping the earth 's surface warmer than it would normally be. The atmosphere is transparent to infrared radiation Primarily from the sun , Which is mostly absorbed by the earth's surface . The earth being much cooler than the sun , Remits radiation at infrared wavelengths most strongly . Water vapor , carbon dioxide and ozone then absorb much of this radiation and remit a large Proportion back towards the earth . Gested the atmosphere acts as a kind of blanket : without its presents the earth 's average ground temperature of 15 degrees Celsius would fall to -28 degrees Celsius. The greenhouse effect termed That implies a Comparable effect keeps the interior of the greenhouse warm. Actually , the man role of the glass in a greenhouse is to preventable convection currents from mixing cooler air outside with the warmer air inside .
 Although water is the most important factor in the greenhouse effect , is a major reason why human regions experience less cooling at night than do dry regions . Changes in both water and carbon dioxide play an important role in climate changes. For this reason many scientist have overexpressed concerns about the global increasement of carbon dioxide in resent decades , Largely as a result of the burring or fossil fuels . In many other factors of the earth 's present climate remainning more or less constant, the carbon dioxide increasefontsize Should raise the average temperature at the earth's surface . Because warm air can containerization hot water before reaching saturation than cooler air can , the amount of water would probably increasefontsize as the atmosphere got hotter . This process could go on forever . Although this Considered unlikely many negative feedbacks could axis so Occur , zoals increasement in cloud cover or carbon dioxide increasefontsize absorption by the oceans , the results of even a limited rise in average surface temperature remains Sufficiently dramatic to justify concern.

 In October 1983 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency released a report That projected the irreversible onset of the greenhouse effect by the 1990's. Shortly there after the National Academy of Sciences issued its own report in All which the matter in question or irreversibility remainning more . Both reports , However , strongly Indicated the need for measures to check the rise in carbon dioxide .
 No matter what term you use global warming or greenhouse effect , they both play a major role in the earth 's climate . Climate researchers are attempting to predict , based on ocean and air circulation , how great an increasement there will be. If global warming continues then the polar ice caps will melt and most of the earth will be flooded and a lot of lives will be repaid .
 The Ozone is located in the stratosphere , approximately 10 km - 50 km above the earth . The density of ozone gas at zero degrees Celsius is 1 ATM . The Ozone is relatively unstable form of molecular oxygen containing three oxygen atoms ( O ) . Radiation from the sun continuously bombards the Earth 's atmosphere , causing molecules to break apart into component elements That form into new chemical compounds . Ozone is produced when upper- atmosphere oxygen molecules ( O ) are broken apart by ultraviolet light . Most of the freed oxygen atoms : immediately bond with nearby oxygen molecules to form ozone ( O + O = O ) .The only method used to make Commercially has to pass gaseous oxygen or air through a high -voltage alternating -current electric discharge called a silent electric discharge. Ozone near the Earth 's surface is Generally Regarded as to a bath. It is created from industrial , transportation , and some natural sources . It is the most noxious component of smog . All high concentration , 0 is known to reduce human lung capacity , as well as damage the cells of many plants, animals , and other organisms . For reasons thesis , ozone is treated ash and air pollutant in most industrial countries . Further More, O in the upper troposphere is a powerful greenhouse gas and is believed to play a role in global warming .
 On the other hand , ozone in the stratosphere is highly valued . It serves as a protective radiation shield That interprets solar ultraviolet light harmful to living things . Ultraviolet light split the relatively unstable O molecules into atomic O and D. Most of the time , the O atom created by Ozone breakup recombines with one of the plentiful O molecules to re -form O . This Ozone -creation process is Constantly at work producing more ozone . Scientist can not predict with certainly the consequences for life on the earth if the stratosphere ozone layer weakens . In general , biologists and health professionals Recognize That life on earth enveloped under the protection of an ozone layer thick enough to remove much of the UV - B solar radiation known to damage cellular organisms . Accordingly , various organisms - -including humans - may have difficultness adjusting to the higher UV-B levels that result from a thinner ozone layer .
 Medical studies have quantified some of the expected effects of Increased UV - B levels , based on real-life information form people exposed to greater than average UV-B levels - populations living at high altitudes and in the tropics , where the average ozone layer is thinner and the more direct sunlight . The most serious medical effects include Increased incidence of cataracts and skin cancer , as well as evidence of weakened immune -system response . Ecological research Indicated That some crop yields will decrease and disruption in marine food chains May occur.
 A weakened ozone layer May usefull case climatological effects . The stratosphere warms with altitude Because The splitting of stratospheric ozone is Caused by ultraviolet photons , All which containerization much more energy than That required to break the OO bond . This extra energy is converted to heat . Less stratospheric ozone Means less local heating , but it usefull Means That more UV light is TRANSMITTED to heat the lower atmosphere and the earth 's surface .
 Ozone can be destroyed by chemicals That react directly with it , or by Those that react with the oxygen atom Temporarily freed whenever an O molecule breaks apart . However , since ozone Concentrations are higher than Those of most reactive chemicals in the stratosphere , the only ozone destroyers or group are Those that can participate in a " catalytic cycle " that is, where one trace catalytic chemical can be 'responsible for destroying terns or even hundreds of thou sands of ozone molecules .
 In the last few years , various human activities have released ozone - destroying chemicals into the atmosphere . Of Particular Importance are halogen atoms - chlorine and bromide . Release chemicals into the ozone by industrial particles include chlorocarbon compounds ( zoals CCL CL and CHI ) , CFCs and halon compounds chloroflucarbon compounds .
  Chlorocarcon compounds are used as industrial solvents Primarily , degreasing compounds , and CFC precursors . The CFCs are used as working fluids in refrigeration and air conditioning units . Aerosol propellant agents . The Halons are used as fire suppressants . Once in the stratosphere , chlorine and bromine containing all thesis compounds are broken apart by solar ultraviolet radiation , releasing Cl or Br Their atoms . These atoms start the process of Ozone destruction . Chlorine or Bromine Each atom That starts the destruction cycle can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules . There are on the other hand natural ozone depletes zoals volcanic eruptions .
   A hole in the Ozone has emerged Because of all of the depletion . Starting in the spring of 1980 , a massive 8.2 square mile ozone hole accounting for one quarter to one half the Appeared on the continent of Antarctica . For the past 16 years the hole has grown larger . There was a theory That Predicted That the most severe O loss would Occur relatively high in the stratosphere above 30 km ) . It was called the Roland / Molina theory. In fact the largest depletion over Antarctica occurred in the middle range between 13 and 21 km . Atmospheric chlorine and bromine levels are expected to peak around 1998.
 There are hört steps being made ​​to protect the ozone . One Such step is the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That harmed the ozone . 37 nations signed the bill , it read that the signing nations cut down on the use of chlorofluorocarbons and to completely stop CFC emissions by the year 2000. In general people are waking up to this serious problem , as well they should. The more ozone thats destroyed the more UVA rays and UVB rays reach the earth That . It is hypothesized That by the year 2086 if depletion continues at the current rate That no living organism will be bootable on to survive on earth Unless they are underwater .
 Ozone is the most important thin debatibly known man . The survival of the human race is really dependent upon the ozone layer . If we keep usingthese dangerous chemicals , zoals CFC , found in Arisol cans , we could ultimatly destroy the ozone layer . If we destroy the ozone layer then we are really ment kill ourselves . If the ozone layer is destroyed then ultriviolent powerful rays will penitrate the earth and everyone would get skin cancer and Eventually that . I hope organizations will continuously work to preventable to the distruction of ozone because i would like to see man survive for a while .

Phosphates

Phosphates May Be created by Substituting some or all of the hydrogen of a phosphoric acid by metals . Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms That Are Replaced , the result ting compound is described as a primary , secondary or tertiary phosphate . Primary and secondary phosphates and hydrogen containers are acid salts . Secondary and tertiary phosphates , with the exception of Those of sodium, potassium andammonium are insoluble in water. Tertiary sodium phosphate is valuable as a detergent and water softener . The primary phosphates tend to be more soluble .
        Phosphates , All which are an important component to metabolism in both plants and animals , help in the first step in the oxidation of glucose in the body . Primary calcium phosphate is an ingredient of fertilizer plant .
        Phosphates have Caused increase increasing attention recently. The focus is on the environmentally harmful effects in household detergents . Wastewater , from laundering agents , contains phosphates , All which are said to be a water pollutant .
        Most laundry detergents containerization Approximately 35 % to 75 % sodiumtriphosphate ( Na5P3O10 ) All which serves two purposes. Providing an alkaline solution ( pH 9.0 to 10.5) is Necessary for effective cleansing and usefull to tie up calcium and magnesium ions found in natural waters and preventable them from interfering with the cleansing role of the detergent .
        Eutrophication is the progressive over- fertilization or water, All which festering masses of algae 's blooms , choking rivers and lakes . Phosphorus compounds act as a fertilizer for all plant life , Whether free-floating algae or more substantialism rooted weeds , and are implicated in eutrophication . Many countries control phosphate levels , WhereasSwitzerland has banned the use of phosphates .
       The marine environment is both fragile and more resistant than the terrestrial ecosystem . It is fragile for the reasons That nutrients are gene rally present in very low concentrations No , Permanently Consumed by living organisms and pollutants diffuse rapidly .
        Lakes and rivers are extremely complex ecosystems . Nutrients are taken up by both algae and rooted weeds . The weeds act as a shelter for fish larvae and zooplankton , or both All which eat algae and are , in turn , eaten by larger fish . Scientists have Concluded That unpolluted lakes can absorb surprisingly large amounts of phosphates without uncertainty . When a fertilizer , zoals a phosphate is added more algae will grow ,and consequently will the populations of zooplankton and fish . Difficulties Arise only when the lake is already impure . Zooplankton are sensitive to Their environment and many substances are toxic to them . If any thesis or substances , -including phosphates , are present the zooplankton population can not increasement . Adding phosphates to this polluted system will case algae growth . The floating masses cut off the light supply . Weeds that decompose and using up dissolved oxygen , and causing sulfurous smells and plagues . Deprived of shelter and food , the fish larvae starve . The lake is well on the way to catastrophe .
        Without wetlands, there would be a minimal amount of fresh drinking water due to the factthat wetlands filter the water of our lakes , rivers and streams , sequentially Reducing contamination or water . The plant growth in wetlands removes phosphates and other plant nutrients washed in from the surrounding soil , consequently Restrictingthe growth of algae and aquatic weeds . This growth is a serious problem in some of Canada's major waterways , where dead and decaying algae deprive the deeper waters their fiduciary oxygen .
        Researches at Lancaster University have Studied lakes All whose plant and animal life has been killed by acid rain . The excess acid in the lakes can be easily Neutralized by adding lime , but this makes the water rich in calcium. Gradually life will return to the lake but , as thesis lakes shouldhave low calcium levels , it will not be the same childof life That Existed in lakes before pollution . The answer , theyhave Concluded , is to add phosphates .
        These phosphates work by shielding the water . This depends upon nitrate ions in the lake . Contradictory , thesis usefull ions are produced by acid rain , containerization oxides of nitrogen from combustion sources . These fertilizers do not alter the pH level of the water . Instead , they Stimulate the growth of plants . The plants absorb the dissolved nitrates , generating hydroxide ions , All which in return Neutralize the excess acid .
        Removal of phosphates from detergents is not likely to slow growth in algae containing substances . It May actually prove disastrous . Its replacement with borax will definitely be disastrous . Scientists are unsure or borax role in plant growth . It is not required by algae and other micro- plants , but it is essential to higher plants . However inexcessive quantities , about 5 micrograms of boron per gram of water , boron severely damages plant life . Highly alkaline substances , gel proteins and sodium hydroxide is hazardous substances . Another concern is the factthat each year thou sands of children swallow detergents result in serious injuries or death ting .
        In conclusion , the only way to over come the disastrous effects of phosphates is to find an alternate . However , an acceptable substitute for phosphates has not yet beenfound . Washing only with synthetic detergents would require so much detergent That the cost per wash would increasement Significantly . Another alternative is the substitution ofnonionic synthetic detergents for ionic detergents in use . Nonionic detergents are not precipitated by calcium or magnesium ions . This would reduce the risk contaminating our lakes and rivers .

phosphates 2

Chemistry : Water PollutionPhosphates in Water Pollution

 Phosphates May Be created by Substituting some or all of thehydrogenation of a phosphoric acid by metals . Depending on the number ofhydrogen atoms That Are Replaced , the result ting compound is described asa primary , secondary or tertiary phosphate . Primary and secondaryphosphates and hydrogen containers are acid salts . Secondary and tertiaryphosphates , with the exception of Those of sodium, potassium andammonium are insoluble in water. Tertiary sodium phosphate is valuableas a detergent and water softener . The primary phosphates tend to bemore soluble .
  Phosphates , All which are an important component to metabolism inboth plants and animals , help in the first step in the oxidation of glucosein the body . Primary calcium phosphate is an ingredient or plantfertilizer .
 Phosphates have Caused increase increasing attention recently. The focusis on the environmentally harmful effects in household detergents .Wastewater , from laundering agents , contains phosphates , All which are saidto be a water pollutant .
 Most laundry detergents containerization Approximately 35 % to 75 % sodiumtriphosphate ( Na5P3O10 ) All which serves two purposes. providing analkaline solution ( pH 9.0 to 10.5) is Necessary for effective cleansinglieve and tie up calcium and magnesium ions found in natural watersand preventable them from interfering with the cleansing role of thedetergent .
 Eutrophication is the progressive over- fertilization or water ,All which in festering masses of algae 's blooms , choking rivers and lakes .Phosphorus compounds act as a fertilizer for all plant life , Whetherfree-floating algae or more substantialism rooted weeds , and are implicatedin eutrophication . Many countries control phosphate levels , WhereasSwitzerland has banned the use of phosphates .
 The marine environment is both fragile and more resistant thanthe terrestrial ecosystem . It is fragile for the reasons That nutrientsare gene rally present in very low concentrations No , Permanently Consumedby living organisms and pollutants diffuse rapidly .
 Lakes and rivers are extremely complex ecosystems . Nutrients aretaken up by both algae and rooted weeds . The weeds act as a shelter forfish larvae and zooplankton , or both All which eat algae and are , in turn ,eaten by larger fish . Scientists have Concluded That unpolluted lakescan absorb surprisingly large amounts of phosphates without uncertainty .When a fertilizer , zoals a phosphate is added more algae will grow ,and consequently will the populations of zooplankton and fish .Difficulties Arise only when the lake is already impure . zooplankton areTheir environment and sensitive to many substances are toxic to them . ifany thesis or substances , -including phosphates , are present thezooplankton population can not increasement . Adding phosphates to thispolluted algae growth system will case . The floating masses cut off thelight supply . Weeds that decompose and using up dissolved oxygen , andcausing sulfurous smells and plagues . Deprived of shelter and food , thefish larvae starve . The lake is well on the way to catastrophe .
 Without wetlands, there would be a minimal amount of freshdrinking water due to the factthat wetlands filter the waters of ourlakes , rivers and streams , sequentially Reducing contamination or water .The plant growth in wetlands removes phosphates and other plantnutrients washed in from the surrounding soil , consequently Restrictingthe growth of algae and aquatic weeds . This growth is a serious problemin some of Canada 's major waterways , where dead and decaying algaedeprive the deeper waters their fiduciary oxygen .
 Researches at Lancaster University have Studied lakes All whoseplant and animal life has been killed by ace lake . Contradictory , thesis usefull ions are produced byacid rain , containerization oxides of nitrogen from combustion sources . Thesefertilizers do not alter the pH level of the water . Instead , theyStimulate the growth of plants . The plants absorb the dissolvednitrates , generating hydroxide ions , All which in return Neutralize theexcess acid .
 Removal of phosphates from detergents is not likely to slow algaegrowth in containing substances . It May actually prove disastrous . Itsreplacement with borax will definitely be disastrous . Scientists areunsure or borax role in plant growth . It is not required by algae andother micro- plants , but it is essential to higher plants . However inexcessive quantities , about 5 micrograms of boron per gram of water,boron severely damages plant life . Highly alkaline substances , gelproteins and sodium hydroxide is hazardous substances .Another concern is the factthat each year thou sands of children swallowting detergents resulted in serious injuries or death .
 In conclusion , the only way to over come the disastrous effectsor phosphates is to find an alternate . However , an acceptable substitutefor phosphates has not yet beenfound . Washing only with syntheticdetergents would require so much detergent That the cost per wash wouldSignificantly increasement . Another alternative is the substitution ofnonionic synthetic detergents for ionic detergents in use . Nonionicdetergents are not precipitated by calcium or magnesium ions . Thiswould reduce the risk contaminating our lakes and rivers .

Nobelium

Nobelium has the symbol No and is a radioactive metallic element with an atomic number of 102 . Nobelium in the actinide series being labeled as one of the transuranic elements . The element is named after Alfred Bernhard Nobel , the Swedish inventor and philanthropist .
 Nobelium can be found when produced artificially in a laboratory. Discovery of the first element was apparently claimed in 1957 by scientific groups in the United States , Great Britain , and Sweden , but the first confirmed discovery of a nobelium isotope was by a team of scientists at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California and That firing place in 1958 . The isotope was created by bombarding curium isotopes with carbon ions .
 Chemically , the properties of nobelium are unknown , but Because it is an actinide , its properties resemble Should Those of the rare earth elements . Isotopes with mass numbers from 250 to 259 and 262 are known . The most stable isotope , nobelium -259 , has a half- life of 58 minutes . The most common isotope , nobelium -255 , has a half -life of a few minutes .

Iron

Iron in its pure state is soft , malleable and ductile (that can be stretched , drawn or hammered thin without breaking ( ( Webster 's Dictionary , 419 , 1988) ) with a hardness of 4-5 . It is easily magnetized at room temperatures and this property disappears when heated above 790 degrees Celsius .. Metal iron Occurs in a free state in only a few localities , notably Greenland ( Encarta , 1996) . One of the physical properties of iron ore as an All which is its color can be black, brown or even reddish Hematite is the most important iron ore , comm only Occurs as "kidney ore" - . so- called Because of its shape ( Symes , 1988 , 56) Other ores included goethite , magnetite , siderite , and bog iron ( Encarta . 1996) . Even though iron is tough and hard it is still easy to work . Iron is a active metal and will combine with halogens , carbon , etc. It has an atomic weight 55,847 , it 's atomic number is 26 , it 's specific gravity is 7.86 , it 's melting point is 1535 degrees Celsius , and it 's boiling point is 3000 degrees Celsius It burns in oxygen forming ferrous oxide When exposed to moist air , iron becomes corroded , forming a reddish - . . brown , flaky , hydrated ferric oxide , comm only known ashes rest. ( Encarta , 1996)
 Iron is formed in shallow seas . It comes out of the water and collects on the sea floor . This Creates an underwater deposit . This process Occurs over Billions of years . Through plate movement the whole sea floor has Eventually moved up out of the water . Once out of the water , the iron has formed a land deposit . The biggest iron deposit in the United States in the Great Lakes . Often called the Northern Minnesota 's Iron Range . There are two ways iron deposits are located. In the first method, special machinery That Detects the iron 's magnetism are used ti find a deposit . In the second method, a plane with special equipment flies over an area or country Suspected of having ore deposits and shoots down soundwaves to determining If That area contains iron deposit . The waves come back up to the plane and Determined by the pattern one can tell if there is an iron deposit .
 In the early 1990 's annual production of iron ore in the United State exceeded 56 million metric tons ( Encarta , 1996) . There are two ways in All which iron is mined . The two ways are open pit and shaft mining. Open pit mining is used 85 % of the time for shallow deposits . Open pit mining is also call strip mining . The way open pit mining works is the top soil is removed with a bulldozer and the land is terraced downward . Then the miners set off a large blast and scattereds All which loosens the ores. Truckloads of ore are carried to the surface . As the pit gets deeper and deeper the expense increasement and at some point it is more economical to go to the second method of mining. The second method in All which iron is mined is called shaft mining. Shaft mining is Usually used for deep and concentrated iron deposits . The way shaft mining works Is that a large machine crushes the rock and then conveyor belts are used to transport it up to the surface .
   The definition of refining is to make fine or pure , free from impurities , dross , alloys , sediment , etc. When they refine iron they alloy it with other metals . This Produces a very common metal known as stem. Steel is very Widely used . It is used from making buildings to making single screws . Though one might think Because stem is made ​​from refined iron the properties would be similar . This is false . It is the same as gasoline is refined oil . One might think they are pretty similar but they are very different .
 Mining is Considered to be extremely detrimental to the environment . Open pit mining has left a major impact on the surrounding environment . Large areas of land are literally dug up and large creators are left . The huge holes disrupt the environment and Are not aesthetic . However , some pits , zoals Those on the Mesabi Range in Minnesota have been turned into lakes and recreational areas this has created for people as well as habitats for birds , fish and other wild life . The noise of the large machines and the frequent blasts in mining must scare away much of the animal life . Fumes from dynamite explosions produce extemely poisonous gases and hazardous materials in mining pockets or May Be released . Dust produced during mining can cause illness , Especially lung disease , black lung disease is associated with coal mining Primarily . In shaft mining , gas can accumulate and explosions can results . Shafts have usefull collasped killing workers . Refining of the ore causes dust and fumes to be released into the environment . In the smelting process to make steel , acidic clouds are formed from the burning of coal . In the U.S. , scrubbers on smokestacks are required to preventable acid rain . Through the years , iron and steel have been used to build our country and providence employment . It's hard to imagine what life would be like if man had not learned how to mine and manufacture iron . Mining is now done in a manner- to conform more to the environment .
 Once the iron ore is mined it is taken to a refinery and purified . Much of the iron from the Northern Minnesota ranges are loaded on barges at Duluth and shipped through the Great Lakes to port near Pennsylvania , zoals Erie and then shipped to cities zoals Pittsburgh and Bethlehem . Shipping it here is easier than to ship the coal to make steel shaft more coal than iron is used in this process . Pure iron has very limited use . It is used to produce galvanized sheet metal and Electromagnets . Most of the iron used Commercially contains small amounts of carbon and other impurities . This includes wrought iron , cast iron and steel . Smelting was used to produce early forms of these. Today blast furnaces That use blasts of air heat the iron to produce steel with ferroalloys . ( Encarta , 1996). The steel is then shaped into All which screws are used to hold the face mask on the shell of the football helmet . Steel is used for this purpose due to its strength . The physical properties of iron are totally changed once it has become and stem Therefore good to make screws as it will no longer rest.